|
|
|
| |
Dinoflagellates are usually combined in one class, Dinophyceae, with a variable number of orders and many families that have fluctuating constituents as new research using electron microscopy and molecular techniques expands our understanding. Morphological terminology of dinoflagellate cells is complex and, to a great extent, specific to dinoflagellates.
Use your mouse to rollover the terms in purple for their definitions. If this feature is not supported by your browser, please refer to the accompanying glossary for terminology. For terms not defined here, consult one or more of the following texts: Dodge (1982); Hoppenrath et al. (2009); Steidinger & Tangen (1997); Throndsen et al. (2007). All photos and drawings by Paul Hargraves, unless otherwise indicated.
Species reported from the IRL system in this list are compiled from various publications and personal observations (PE Hargraves), and fall into the following five orders as currently (2011) envisioned: |
| |
ORDER PROROCENTRALES Cell wall with two large cellulose plates and several smaller plates in the apical flagellar area, lacking a cingulum and sulcus. |
 |
|
 |
| Figure 1A. General morphology of dinoflagellates from the order Prorocentrales. |
|
Figure 1B. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of Prorocentrum micans from the order Prorocentrales. |
| |
| |
ORDER DINOPHYSIALES
Cells are laterally flattened with a premedian cingulum, a sulcus often with lateral extensions or lists, and a total of 18 or 19 cellulose plates. |
 |
|
 |
| Figure 2A. General morphology of dinoflagellates from the order Dinophysiales. |
|
Figure 2B. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of Phalacroma sp. from the order Dinophysiales |
| |
| |
ORDER GONYAULACALES
Cells with cingulum and sulcus, and with a series of cellulose plates organized into the following regular pattern that define the genera morphologically: apical pore complex, which typically lacks a canal plate; apical; anterior intercalary; precingular; cingular; sulcal; postcingular; posterior intercalary; antapical plates. Distinguished from the Peridiniales mostly by the arrangement and number of the thecal plates. Tabulation follows or is derived from one or both of the following patterns:
a. The first apical plate is somewhat asymmetrical, its left lateral triple junction being more anterior than the right lateral triple junction and giving a very asymmetrical pore complex; or
b. There are 2-4 fundital plates, including the posterior intercalary and first antapical plates or their homologues.
ORDER PERIDINIALES
Cells with cingulum and sulcus, and with a series of cellulose plates organized into the following regular pattern that defines the genera: apical pore complex with a canal plate; apical; anterior intercalary; precingular; cingular; sulcal; postcingular; posterior intercalary; and antapical plates. The first apical plate is usually more symmetrical than that in the Gonyaulacales.
|
 |
| Figure 3A. General morphology of dinoflagellates from the orders Gonyaulacales and Peridiniales. |
| |
 |
|
 |
| Figure 3B. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of Gonyaulax sp. from the order Gonyaulacales. |
|
Figure 3C. SEM image of Protoperidinium sp. from the order Peridiniales. Photo courtesy of FWC. |
| |
| |
ORDER GYMNODINIALES
Cells lack cellulose plates, but have a distinct cingulum and sulcus. Note that generic and ordinal assignments are highly flexible. |
 |
|
 |
| Figure 4A. General morphology of dinoflagellates from the order Gymnodiniales. |
|
Figure 4B. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of Karenia brevis from the order Gymnodiniales. Photo courtesy of FWC. |
|
The list is composed of species that have been reported as present in the IRL system in refereed publications; some require further verification. For more information on the origin and validity of names, refer to www.algaebase.org. The thecate dinoflagellates are sometimes all placed in the order Gonyaulacales, or all in the order Peridiniales, and sometimes both orders are recognized as separate. The differences between orders are rather subtle and usually involve the structure of the apical pore complex and the symmetry of the first precingular plate. There is some molecular genetic evidence for the separation of orders, hence the thecate dinoflagellates are here grouped into two orders, Peridiniales and Gonyaulacales. Parasitic dinoflagellates are not included.
Several of the organisms in the following table are linked to their species profiles on the Encyclopedia of Life website. To view these profiles, click on the EOL logo to the right of the scientific name. |
| ORDER |
SCIENTIFIC NAME |
| |
|
| Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum arcuatum EOL |
Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum balticum EOL |
| Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum dentatum EOL |
| Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum emarginatum EOL |
Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum gracile EOL |
Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum hoffmannianum EOL |
Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum lima EOL |
Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum mexicanum EOL |
Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum micans EOL |
Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum minimum EOL |
| Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum scutellum EOL |
| Prorocentrales |
Prorocentrum triestinum EOL |
| |
|
| |
|
|
Dinophysiales |
Amphisolenia bidentata EOL |
|
Dinophysiales |
Amphisolenia bifurcata EOL |
|
Dinophysiales |
Dinophysis argus EOL |
|
Dinophysiales |
Dinophysis caudata EOL |
|
Dinophysiales |
Dinophysis caudata v. acutifrons |
|
Dinophysiales |
Dinophysis micropterygia EOL |
|
Dinophysiales |
Dinophysis parvulum |
|
Dinophysiales |
Ornithocercus magnificus EOL |
| Dinophysiales |
Oxyphysis oxytoxoides EOL |
| Dinophysiales |
Phalacroma argus EOL |
| |
|
| |
|
|
Gonyaulacales |
Alexandrium monilatum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium buceros EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium candelabrum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium carriense EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium concilians EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium contortum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium contrarium EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium extensum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium falcatum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium furca EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium fusus EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium hexacanthum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium hircus EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium horridum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium incisum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium inflatum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium kofoidii EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium lineatum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium longirostrum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium longissimum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium lunula EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium macroceros EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium massiliense EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium pentagonum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium ranipes EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium teres EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium trichoceros EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium tripos EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratium vultur EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Ceratocorys horrida EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Coolia monotis EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Corythodinium tesselatum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gambierdiscus toxicus EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax apiculata EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax birostris EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax diegensis EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax digitale EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax kofoidii EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax minima EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax polygramma EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax scrippsae EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax spinifera EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax unicornis EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Gonyaulax verior EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Neoceratium belone EOL |
| Gonyaulacales |
Neoceratium bigelowii EOL |
| Gonyaulacales |
Neoceratium breve EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Protoceratium reticulatum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Pyrocystis fusiformis EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Pyrocystis hamulus EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Pyrocystis lanceolata EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Pyrocystis noctiluca EOL |
| Gonyaulacales |
Pyrodinium bahamense EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Pyrophacus horologicum EOL |
|
Gonyaulacales |
Pyrophacus steinii EOL |
| |
|
| |
|
| Peridiniales |
Corythodinium tesselatum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Heterocapsa niei EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Heterocapsa rotundatum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Kryptoperidinium foliaceum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Oxytoxum milneri EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Peridinium aciculiferum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Peridinium quinquecorne EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium abei EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium breve EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium cerasus EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium claudicans EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium conicum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium crassipes EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium depressum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium divergens EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium globulus EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium grande EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium hirobis EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium leonis EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium nipponicum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium oceanicum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium pallidum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium pellucidum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium pendunculatum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium pentagonum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium punctulatum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium solidicorne EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium subinerme EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Protoperidinium venustum EOL |
| Peridiniales |
Scrippsiella trochoidea EOL |
| |
|
| |
|
| Gymnodiniales |
Akashiwo sanguinea EOL |
Gymnodiniales |
Amphidinium carterae EOL |
Gymnodiniales |
Amphidinium operculatum EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Cochlodinium citron EOL |
Gymnodiniales |
Gymnodinium fissum EOL |
Gymnodiniales |
Gymnodinium helveticum v. apiculata |
Gymnodiniales |
Gymnodinium instriatum EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Gymnodinium pulchellum EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Gyrodinium dominans EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Gyrodinium estuariale EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Gyrodinium impudicum EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Gyrodinium instriatum EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Gyrodinium spirale EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Karenia brevis EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Karenia mikimotoi EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Karlodinium veneficum EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Katodinium glaucum EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Pheopolykrikos hartmannii EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Polykrikos schwartzii EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Takayama tasmanica EOL |
| Gymnodiniales |
Torodinium teredo EOL |
| |
|
REFERENCES
Dodge, JD. 1982. Marine Dinoflagellates of the British Isles. HMSO London. 303 pp.
Hoppenrath, M, Elbrächter, M & G Drebes. 2009. Marine Phytoplankton. Kleine Senckenberg Reihe 49: 1-264.
Steidinger, K & K Tangen. 1997. Dinoflagellates. 387-584. In: C Tomas (Ed.) Identifying Marine Phytoplankton. Academic Press, NY.
Throndsen, J, Hasle, GR & K Tangen. 2007. Phytoplankton of Norwegian Coastal Waters. Almater Forlag AS, Oslo. 343 pp. |
|
Copyright © 2011 Smithsonian Institution |
|
FLAGELLAR AREA
The vacinity of the origin of the two flagella.
PREMEDIAN CINGULUM
A cingulum that encircles the cell above the midpoint.
TABULATION
The arrangement of thecal plates.
LATERAL TRIPLE JUNCTION
The point of junction of three plates.
FUNDITAL PLATES
In thecate dinoflagellates, those plates posterior to the postcingular (''') series of plates and outside of the sulcus.
CANAL PLATE
A narrow, elongated plate on the epitheca of armored (thecate) dinoflagellates. Ventral to or part of the apical pore complex. Also called the 'X' plate.
THECAL / THECATE
Dinoflagellates possesing a cell wall comprised of cellulose plates, which have special designations and symbols according to their location on the cell. See glossary for more information.
ANTAPICAL PLATES
Plates at the antapex of the cell, mostly in contact with sulcal plates, indicated by ('''') in Figure 3A.
POSTERIOR INTERCALARY PLATES
Plates located between the postcingular and antapical plates, indicated by (p) in Figure 3A.
POSTCINGULAR PLATES
Plates located immediately below the cingulum, indicated by (''') in Figure 3A.
SULCAL PLATES
Plates located in the sulcus, indicated by (s) in Figure 3A.
CINGULAR PLATES
Plates that are located in the cingular (girdle) groove around the cell, indicated by (c) in Figure 3A.
PRECINGULAR PLATES
Plates located immediately above the cingulum, indicated by ('') in Figure 3A.
ANTERIOR INTERCALARY PLATES
Plates located between the apical and precingular plates, indicated by (a) in Figure 3A.
APICAL PLATES
Plates that surround and touch the cell apex, indicated by (') in Figure 3A.
APICAL PORE COMPLEX
A pore or hole at the cell apex that may have one or more tiny accessory plates.
LIST
Membranous extension of the cingulum and/or sulcus that extends beyond the cell wall boundary. Found in thecate dinoflagellates, especially the order Dinophysiales.
SULCUS
A longitudinal furrow, often partially enclosing the propulsive flagellum.
CINGULUM
A furrow encircling the cell that contains the rotatory flagellum. Also referred to as the girdle or transverse groove.
