|
Florida
Mangrove Species:
The term mangrove is loosely used to describe a wide variety of often unrelated
tropical and subtropical trees and shrubs which share common characteristics.
Globally, more than 50 species in 16 different families are considered mangroves
(Tomlinson 1986). In Florida, the mangrove community consists of 3 main species
of true mangroves: the red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), the black
mangrove (Avicennia germinans) and the white
mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa). The buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus)
is often considered a fourth mangrove species, however, it is classified as a
mangrove associate because it lacks any morphological specialization common in
true mangrove species, and because it generally inhabits the upland fringe of many
mangrove communities.
Red
mangroves, Rhizophora mangle, dominante the shoreline from the upper
subtidal to the lower intertidal zones (Davis 1940, Odum and McIvor 990), and
are distinguished from other mangroves by networks of prop roots that originate
in the trunk of the tree and grow downward towards the substratum. Red
mangroves may attain heights of 25 m, with leaves a glossy, bright green at the
upper surface, with somewhat more pale undersides. Trees flower throughout the
year, peaking in spring and summer. Propagules of the red mangrove are
pencil-shaped and may reach 30 cm in length as they mature on the parent tree
(Savage 1972, Carlton 1975).
Black
mangroves typically are found growing immediately inland of red mangroves and
may reach 20 m in height. They are characterized by their conspicuous
pneumatophores, vertical branches that may extend upward in excess of 20 cm from
cable roots lying below the soil. Pneumatophores develop into extensive
networks of fingerlike projections that surround the bases of black mangroves to
provide them with proper aeration. The leaves of black mangroves tend to be
somewhat narrower than those of red mangroves and are often found encrusted with
salt. Black mangroves flower throughout spring and early summer, producing
bean-shaped propagules (Savage 1972, Carlton 1975, Odum and McIvor 1990).
White
mangroves are more prominent in high marsh areas, typically growing upland of
both red and black mangroves. White mangroves are significantly shorter than
red or black mangroves, generally reaching 15 m in height. Their leaves are
oval in shape, and somewhat flattened. Trees flower in spring and early summer,
and produce small propagules which measure only 1 cm.
Mangroves occur in dense, brackish
swamps along coastal and tidally influenced, low energy shorelines. In Florida,
mangrove forests extend from the Florida Keys to St. Augustine on the Atlantic
coast, and Cedar Key on the Gulf coast. Factors such as climate, salt
tolerance, water level fluctuation, nutrient runoff, and wave energy influence
the composition, distribution, and extent of mangrove communities. Temperature
also plays a major role in mangrove distribution. Typically, mangroves occur in
areas where mean annual temperatures do not drop below 19°C
(66°F) (Waisel 1972). Mangroves are
damaged under conditions where temperatures fluctuate more than 10°C
within short periods of time, or when they are subject to freezing conditions
for even a few hours. Further, Lugo and Patterson-Zucca (1977) showed that
stress induced by low temperatures leads to decreasing structural complexity in
black mangroves, with tree height, leaf area, leaf size and tree density within
a forest all negatively impacted.
Mangrove Adaptations:
In general, mangrove species share 4
important traits that allow them to live successfully under environmental
conditions that often exclude other species. Some of these adaptations
include: morphological specialization, i.e., aerial prop roots, cable roots,
vivipary, and other features that enable mangroves to adapt and thrive in their
environments; the ability to excrete or exclude salts; habitat specificity
within estuaries, with no extension into upland terrestrial communities; and
taxonomic isolation from other generically related species inhabiting upland
communities (Tomlinson 1986).
Root
Aeration:
Another adaptation exhibited by mangroves is observed in root aeration. Soils
in mangrove areas tend to be fairly axoxic, preventing many types of plants from
taking root. Mangroves have adapted to this condition by evolving shallow root
systems rather than deep taproots. Red mangroves aerate their roots by way of
drop roots and prop roots which develop from lower stems and branches, and
penetrate the soil only a few centimeters. Prop roots act to both stabilize the
tree, and provide critical aeration to the roots. The above-ground areas of
these roots are perforated by many small pores called lenticels that allow
oxygen to diffuse first into cortical air spaces called aerenchyma, and then
into underground roots (Scholander et al 1955, Odum and McIvor 1990). Water is
prevented from entering the tree via lenticels due to their highly hydrophobic
nature which allows the red mangrove to exclude water from prop roots and drop
roots even during high tides (Waisel 1972).
Black
mangroves utilize a different strategy for aeration of root tissues. Black
mangroves have cable roots which lie only a few centimeters below the soil
surface, and raditate outward from the stem of the tree (Odum and McIvor 1990).
A network of erect aerial roots extends upward from the cable roots to penetrate
the soil surface. These erect roots, called pneumatophores, contain lenticels
and aerenchyma for gas exchange, and may form dense mats around the base of
black mangrove trees, with pneumatophores attaining as much as 20 cm or more in
height depending on the depth of flood tides (Odum and McIvor 1990).
Salt
Balance:
Mangroves are facultative halophytes, meaning they have the ability
to grow in either fresh or salt water depending on which is available.
However, despite the fact that mangroves are able to grow in fresh
water, they are largely confined to estuaries and upland fringe
areas that are at least periodically flooded by brackish or salt
water (Gilmore and Snedaker 1993). Mangroves are rarely found
growing in upland communities. Simberloff (1983) and Tomlinsion
(1986) suggested that one reason mangroves do not develop in strictly
freshwater communities is due to space competition from freshwater
vascular plants. By growing in saline water, mangroves reduce
competitive threat, and thus are able to dominate the areas they
grow in.
As
facultative halophytes, mangroves not only tolerate, but thrive under saline
conditions. They accomplish this either by preventing salts from entering their
tissues, or by being able to excrete excess salts that are taken in. Red
mangroves (Rhizophora mangle), for example, exclude salts at their root
surfaces. This is accomplished nonmetabolically via a reverse osmosis process
driven by transpiration at leaf surfaces in which water loss from leaves
produces high negative pressure in xylem tissue. This, in turn, allows water to
freely diffuse into plant tissues. In addition to excluding salts, red
mangroves also have the ability to exclude sulfides from their tissues. This
sometimes results in elevated pore water concentrations of sulfides in
localities where poor flushing of the mangrove area is common (Carlson and
Yarbro 1987).
In
contrast to salt exclusion observed in red mangroves, other species
such as black mangroves, white mangroves and buttonwoods each utilize
salt excretion as a salt-balancing mechanism. Salt concentrations
in the sap of these species may be up to ten times higher than in
species that exclude salts (Odum and McIvor 1990). Salt-excreting
species are able to take in high salinity pore water, and then excrete
excess salts using specialized salt glands located in the leaves.
Atkinson et al. (1967) suggested this process involved active
transport, and thus required energy input from mangroves to drive
the process.
Reproduction
& Dispersal:
Reproductive
adaptions in mangroves include vivipary and hydrochory (DEF=dispersal
of propagules via water). Red and black mangroves are considered
to be viviparous because once seeds are produced, they undergo continuous
development rather than entering a resting stage to await germination
in appropriate soil. White mangroves are not considered to
be viviparous; however, germination in this species often
occurs during the dispersal period (Feller 1996). Mangrove
reproductive structures, called propagules rather than seeds, germinate
and develop embryonic tissue while still attached to the parent.
Propagules eventually detach from the parent and float in water
for a certain period of time before completing embryonic development
(Rabinowitz 1978a, Odum and McIvor 1990) and taking root in new
areas. For germination to be completed, propagules must remain
in water for extended periods of time. The obligate
dispersal period in red mangroves is approximated to be 40 days;
in black mangroves, it is estimated at 14 days; and in white
mangroves it is estimated at 8 days (Rabinowitz 1978a). This combined
strategy of vivipary and long-lived, floating propagules allows
not only wide dispersal of mangroves, but also allows for seedlings
to establish themselves quickly once appropriate substrata are encountered
(Odum and McIvor 1990).
Productivity & Nutrient Flux in Mangroves:
Mangrove forests are among the world’s most highly productive ecosystems, with
gross primary production estimated at 3 – 24 g C/m-2 day
-1,
and net production estimated at 1 – 12 g
C/m-2
day -1
(Lugo and Snedaker 1974, Lugo et al. 1976). Red mangroves have the
highest production rates, followed by black mangroves and white mangroves (Lugo
et al. 1976). Black mangroves have been shown to have higher respiration
rates, and thus lower primary production, in comparison to the red mangroves,
due perhaps, to the higher salinity stress red mangrove trees come under (Miller
1972, Lugo and Snedaker 1974).
Mangrove communities, like many tidal wetlands, accumulate nutrients such as
nitrogen and phosphorus, as well as heavy metals and trace elements that are
deposited into estuarine waters from terrestrial sources, and thus act as
nutrient “sinks” for these materials. Mangrove roots, epiphytic algae, bacteria
and other microorganisms, as well a wide variety of invertebrates take up and
sequester nutrients in their tissues, often for long periods of time. Mangroves
also continually act as sources for carbon, nitrogen, and other elements as
living material dies and is decomposed into dissolved, particulate and gaseous
forms. Tidal flushing then assists in distributing this material to areas where
other organisms may utilize it.
Leaf
litter, including leaves, twigs, propagules, flowers, small braches and insect
refuse, is a major nutrient source to consumers in mangrove systems (Odum
1970). Generally, leaf litter is composed of approximately 68 – 86 % leaves, 3
– 15 % twigs, and 8 – 21 % miscellaneous material (Pool et al. 1975).
Leaf fall in Florida mangroves was estimated to be 2.4 dry g m-2 day
-1 on average, with significant variation depending on the site (Heald
1969, Odum 1970). Typically, black mangrove leaf fall rates are only ½ those
of the red mangrove (Lugo et al. 1980).
Once
fallen, leaves and twigs decompose fairly rapidly, with black mangrove leaves
decomposing faster than red mangrove leaves (Heald et al. 1979). Areas
experiencing high tidal flushing rates, or which are flooded frequently, have
faster rates of decomposition and export than other areas. Heald (1969) also
showed that decomposition of red mangrove litter proceeds faster under saline
conditions than under fresh water conditions, and also reported that as the
decay process proceeds, nitrogen, protein, and caloric content within the leaf
all increase.
Types of Mangrove Forests:
Gilmore
and Snedaker (1993) described 5 distinct types of mangrove forests based on
water level, wave energy, and pore water salinity: 1) mangrove fringe forests,
2) overwash mangrove islands, 3) riverine mangrove forests, 4) basin mangrove
forests, and 5) dwarf mangrove forests.
Mangrove
Fringe:
Mangrove fringe forests occur along protected coastlines and the exposed open
waters of bays and lagoons. These forests typically have a vertical profile,
owing to full-sun exposure. Red mangroves dominate fringe forests, but when
local topology rises toward the uplands, other species may be included in zones
above the water line. Tides are the primary physical factor in fringing
forests, with daily cycles of tidal inundation and export transporting buoyant
materials such as leaves, twigs and propagules from mangrove areas to adjacent
shallow water areas. This export of organic material provides nutrition to a
wide variety of organisms and provides for continued growth of the fringing
forest.
Overwash
Islands:
Like fringe forests, mangrove overwash islands are also subject to tidal
inundation, and are dominated by red mangroves. The major difference between
mangrove fringe forests and overwash islands is that, in the latter, the entire
island is typically inundated on each tidal cycle. Because overwash islands are
unsuitable for human habitation, and because the water surrounding them may act
as a barrier to predatory animals such as raccoons, rats, feral cats, etc.,
overwash islands are often the site of bird rookeries.
Riverine
Mangrove Forests:
Riverine mangrove forests occur on seasonal floodplains in areas where natural
patterns of freshwater discharge remain intact. Salinity drops during the wet
season, when rains cause extensive freshwater runoff; however, during the dry
season, estuarine waters are able to intrude more deeply into river systems, and
salinity increases as a result. This high seasonal salinity may aid primary
production by excluding space competitors from mangrove areas. Further,
nutrient availability in these systems becomes highest during periods when
salinity is lowest, thus promoting optimal mangrove growth. This alternating
cycle of high runoff/low salinity followed by low runoff/high salinity led Pool
et al. (1977) to suggest that riverine mangrove forests are the most
highly productive of the mangrove communities.
Basin
Mangrove Forests:
Basin mangrove forests are perhaps the most common community type, and thus are
the most commonly altered wetlands. Basin mangrove forests occur in inland
depressions which are irregularly flushed by tides. Because of irregular tidal
action in these forests, hypersaline conditions are likely to occur
periodically. Cintron et al. (1978) observed that the physiological
stress induced by extreme hypersalinity may severely limit growth, or induce
mortality in mangroves. Black mangroves tend to dominate in basin communities,
but certain exotic trees such as Brazilian pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius)
and Australian pine (Casuarina spp.) are also successful invaders. Basin
mangrove forests contribute large amounts of organic debris to adjacent waters,
with the majority being exported as whole leaves, particulates, or dissolved
organic substances typical of waters containing high tannin concentrations.
Dwarf
Mangrove Forests:
Dwarf mangrove forests occur in areas where nutrients, freshwater, and
inundation by tides are all limited. Any mangrove species can be dwarfed, with
trees generally limited in height to approximately 1 meter or less. Dwarf
forests are most commonly observed in South Florida, around the vicinity of the
Everglades, but occur in all portions of the range where physical conditions are
suboptimal, especially in drier transitional areas. Despite their small size
and relatively low area to biomass ratios, dwarf mangroves typically have higher
leaf litter production rates; thus primary production in dwarf forests is
disproportionately high when compared with normal mangrove forests.
Ecological Role of Mangroves:
Mangroves perform a vital ecological role providing habitat for a wide variety
of species. Odum et al. (1982) reported 220 fish species, 24 reptile
species, 18 mammal species, and 181 bird species that all utilize mangroves as
habitat during some period of life. Additionally many species, though not
permanent mangrove inhabitants, make use of mangrove areas for foraging,
roosting, breeding, and other activities.
Mangrove canopies and aerial roots
offer a wealth of habitat opportunities to many species of estuarine
invertebrates. Barnacles, sponges, mollusks, segmented worms, shrimp,
insects, crabs, and spiny lobsters all utilize mangrove prop roots as habitat
for at least part of their life cycles (Gillet1996 In: Feller 1996).
Additionally, mangrove roots are particularly suitable for juvenile fishes.
A study by Thayer et al. (1987) in the Florida Everglades showed that
comparitively more fishes were sampled from mangrove areas than from adjacent
seagrass beds. In this study, 75% of the number of fishes sampled were
taken from mangrove areas, while only 25% were sampled from nearby seagrass
beds. Further, when fish densities in each habitat were examined, fish
density in mangroves was 35 times higher than in adjacent seagrass beds.
In addition to providing vital
nursery and feeding habitat to fishes, mangroves also assist in shoreline
protection and stabilization. Prop roots of red mangroves trap sediments
in low-energy estuarine waters, and thus assist in preventing coastal erosion.
Mangroves also assist in buffering the coastal zone when tropical storms and
hurricanes strike. Because mangroves encounter damaging winds and waves
before inland areas do, the branches in their canopies, and their many prop
roots create friction that opposes and reduces the force of winds and waves.
Thus, coastlines are protected from severe wave damage, shoreline erosion and
high winds (Gillet1996 In: Feller 1996).
A
number of spatial guilds for mangrove-associated species were identified by
Gilmore and Snedaker (1993). The sublittoral/littoral guild utilizes the prop
root zone of red mangroves associated with fringe forests, riverine forests, and
overwash forests. The prop root zone provides sessile filter feeding organisms
such as bryozoans, tunicates, barnacles, and mussels with an ideal environment.
Mobile organisms such as crabs, shrimp, snails, boring crustaceans, polychaete
worms, many species of juvenile fishes, and other transient species also utilize
the prop root zone of mangroves as both a refuge and feeding area.
The
arboreal canopy guild consists of species able to migrate from the water’s
surface to the mangrove canopy. Lagoonal snails such as the coffee bean snail (Melamphus
coffeus), angulate periwinkle (Littorina anguilifera), and ladderhorn
snail (Cerithidea scalariformis) are among the most common of the
invertebrate species in this guild. Also common are many species of crustaceans
such as the common mangrove crabs Aratus pisoni, Goniopsis cruentata,
Pachygrapsus transverses, and Sesarma spp., the isopod Ligea exotica,
and many species of insects. Birds also constitute a major component of this
spatial guild.
When
compared with species that inhabit adjacent seagrass areas, the benthic infaunal
guild is generally considered to exist under somewhat impoverished conditions,
primarily due to the reducing conditions which often exist in mangrove
sediments. Despite this, the benthic infaunal community in mangrove areas is
highly productive, especially when microbial activity is taken into
consideration.
The
upland arboreal guild includes those species associated with tropical hardwoods
such as mahogany (Swietenia spp.), cabbage palms (Sabal palmetto),
dogwoods (Piscidia spp.), oaks (Quercus spp.), red bay (Persea
sp.), gumbo limbo (Bersera simaruba), mastic (Mastichodendron
sp.), figs (Ficus spp.) and stoppers (Eugenia spp.). Also
included are the various species of bromeliads, orchids, ferns, and other
epiphytes that utilize upland trees for support and shelter. Animals of this
spatial guild, primarily birds and winged insects, often reside in the upland
community, but migrate to feeding areas located in mangroves. Common upland
arboreal animals include jays, wrens, woodpeckers, warblers, gnatcatchers,
skinks, anoles, snakes, and tree snails.
Finally, the upland terrestrial community is associated with the understory of
tropical hardwood forests. The most common members of this guild include
various snakes, hispid cotton rats (Sigmodon sp.), raccoons (Procyon
lotor), white-tailed deer (Odocoileusus virginianus), bobcats (Felis
rufus), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), and many insect
species. Many of the animals in this spatial guild enter mangrove forests daily
for feeding, but return to the upland community at other times.
Select a highlighted link below to learn more about
that species:
|
Species
Name |
Common
Name |
Habitat
Useage |
|
Mangrove Plants:
|
|
Acrostichum danaeifolium |
Mangrove
fern |
|
|
Avicennia germinans |
Black
mangrove |
Upper
intertidal |
|
Batis
maritima |
Saltwart |
|
|
Borrichia frutescens |
Sea
Ox-eye |
|
|
Casuarina equistifolia |
Australian pine |
|
|
Conocarpus erecta |
Buttonwood, Button mangrove |
High
intertidal, scrub |
|
Halodule beaudettei |
Shoalgrass |
|
|
Halophila
decipiens |
Paddlegrass |
|
|
Halophila englemanni |
Star
grass |
|
|
Halophila johnsonii |
Johnson’s seagrass |
|
|
Juncus roemerianus |
Black
needlerush |
|
|
Laguncularia racemosa |
White
mangrove |
High
intertidal |
|
Limonium carolinianum |
Sea
lavender |
|
|
Melaleuca quinquenervia |
Melaleuca |
|
|
Monarda punctata |
Spotted
beebalm |
|
|
Rhizophora mangle |
Red
mangrove |
Lower
and middle intertidal |
|
Ruppia maritima |
Widgeon
grass |
|
|
Salicornia bigelovii |
Annual
glasswart |
|
|
Salicornia virginica |
Perennial glasswart |
|
|
Schinus terebinthifolia |
Brazilian pepper |
|
|
Suaeda linearis |
Sea
blite |
|
|
Sueda
maritima |
Sea
blite |
|
|
Syringodium filiforme |
Manatee
grass |
|
|
Thalassia testudinium |
Turtlegrass |
|
|
Verbesina virginica |
White
crownbeard, frostweed |
|
|
Mangrove Algae, Diatoms &
Other Protists: |
|
Acanthophora spicifera |
|
|
|
Anacystis montana |
|
|
|
Anadyomena sp. |
|
|
|
Caulerpa sertularoides |
|
|
|
Caulerpa spp. |
|
|
|
Chaetoceros spp. |
|
|
|
Chaetomorpha linum |
|
|
|
Cladophoropsis membranacea |
|
|
|
Cryptoperidinopsis spp. |
|
|
|
Derbesia vaucheriaeformis |
|
|
|
Enteromorpha spp. |
|
|
|
Gonyaulax monilata |
|
|
|
Gracilaria spp. |
|
|
|
Gymnodidium pulchellum |
|
|
|
Halimeda discoidea |
|
|
|
Hypnea spp.. |
|
|
|
Lyngbya lutea |
|
|
|
Nitzchia spp. |
|
|
|
Paralia spp. |
|
|
|
Phorinidium crosbyanum |
|
|
|
Polysiphonia sp. |
|
|
|
Scrippsiella subsalsa |
|
|
|
Skeletonema costatum |
|
|
|
Spirulina sp. |
|
|
|
Sturea anastomosans |
|
|
|
Thalssiosira spp. |
|
|
|
Ulva
spp. |
|
|
|
Mangrove Animals:
|
|
Abudefduf saxatilus |
Sergeant
major |
|
|
Acetes americanus |
Aviu
shrimp |
|
|
Achirus lineatus |
Lined
sole |
|
|
Acteocina canaliculata |
Cahnneled barrel-bubble |
|
|
Aiptasia pallida |
Pale
anemone |
|
|
Ajaia ajaia |
Roseate
spoonbill |
|
|
Alligator mississipensis |
American
alligator |
|
|
Alpheus armillatus |
Banded
snapping shrimp |
|
|
Alpheus heterochaelis |
Common
snapping shrimp |
|
|
Amygdalum papyrum |
Atlantic
papermussel |
|
|
Anachis semiplicata |
Gulf
dovesnail |
|
|
Anas
acuta |
Northern
pintail |
|
|
Anas
americana |
American
widgeon |
|
|
Anas
clypeata |
Northern
shoveler |
|
|
Anas
crecca |
Green-winged teal |
|
|
Anas
discors |
blue-winged teals |
|
|
Anas
fulvigula |
Mottled
duck |
|
|
Anas
spp. |
Dabbling
ducks |
|
|
Anchoa cubana |
Cuban
anchovy |
|
|
Anchoa hepsetus |
Striped
anchovy |
|
|
Anchoa lyolepis |
Dusky
anchovy |
|
|
Anchoa mitchelli |
Bay
anchovy |
|
|
Anguilla rostrata |
American
eel |
|
|
Anhinga anhinga |
Anhinga |
|
|
Anomalocardia auberiana |
Pointed
venus |
|
|
Apalone ferox |
Florida
softshelled turtle |
|
|
Arca
imbricata |
Mossy
ark |
|
|
Aratus pisoni |
Mangrove
crab |
|
|
Archosargus probatocephalus |
Sheepshead |
|
|
Archosargus rhomboidalis |
Sea
bream |
|
|
Arctia tonsa |
Calanoid
copepod |
|
|
Ardea alba |
Great
egret |
|
|
Ardea herodias |
Great
blue heron |
|
|
Arius felis |
Hardhead
catfish |
|
|
Ascidia curvata |
Curved
tunicate |
|
|
Ascidia nigra |
Black
tunicate |
|
|
Assiminea spp. |
(none) |
|
|
Astyris lunata |
Lunar
dovesnail |
|
|
Atherinomorus stipes |
Hardhead
silverside |
|
|
Aythya affinis |
Lesser
scaup |
|
|
Aythya americana |
Redhead
duck |
|
|
Aythya collaris |
Ringneck
duck |
|
|
Aythya valisineria |
Canvasback |
|
|
Bagre marinus |
Gafftopsail catfish |
|
|
Balanus eburneus |
Ivory
barnacle |
|
|
Bairdiella chrysoura |
Silver
perch, yellowtail |
|
|
Bathygobius curacao |
Notchtongue goby |
|
|
Bathygobius soporator |
Frillfin
goby |
|
|
Bittiolum varium |
grass
cerith |
|
|
Boonea impressa |
Impressed odostome |
|
|
Botryllus planus |
Variable
encrusting tunicate |
|
|
Brachidontes exustus |
Scorched
mussel |
|
|
Branchiomma nigromaculata |
Black
spotted fanworm |
|
|
Brevoortia smithi |
menhaden |
|
|
Brevoortia tyrannus |
Atlantic
menhaden |
|
|
Bubulcus ibis |
Cattle
egret |
|
|
Bucephala albeola |
Bufflehead |
|
|
Bulla
striata |
Striate
bubble |
|
|
Bunodosoma cavernata |
American
warty anemone |
|
|
Bunodosoma graniliferum |
Red
warty anemone |
|
|
Bursatella leachii pleii |
Browsing
sea hares |
|
|
Busycon contrarium |
Lightning whelk |
|
|
Butroides virescens |
Green
backed heron |
|
|
Calidris alpina |
Dunlin |
|
|
Calidris mauri |
Western
sandpiper |
|
|
Calidris minutilla |
Least
sandpiper |
|
|
Calidris spp. |
Sandpipers |
|
|
Callinectes bocourti |
Red
crab |
|
|
Callinectes ornatus |
ornate
blue crab |
|
|
Callinectes sapidus |
blue
crab |
|
|
Callinectes similis |
lesser
blue crab |
|
|
Capitella spp. |
Polychaete worm |
|
|
Caranx hippos |
Crevalle
jack |
|
|
Carcharhinus leucas |
bull
shark |
|
|
Cardinalis cardinalis |
Cardinal |
|
|
Cardisoma guanhumi |
giant
land crab |
|
|
Carditamera floridana |
Broad
ribbed carditid |
|
|
Cassiopeia frondosa |
upside-down jellyfish |
|
|
Cassiopeia xamachana |
Upside-down jellyfish |
|
|
Catoptrophorus semipalmatus |
Willet |
|
|
Centropomus parallelus |
Fat
snook |
|
|
Centropomus pectinatus |
Tarpon
snook |
|
|
Centropomus undecimalis |
common
snook |
|
|
Centropristis philadelphica |
Rock
sea bass |
|
|
Ceratozona squalida |
Eastern
surf chiton |
|
|
Cerithidea scalariformis |
Ladderhorn snail |
|
|
Cerithium muscarum |
Flyspeck
cerith |
|
|
Chaetodipterus faber |
Atlantic
spadefish |
|
|
Charadrius vociferus |
Killdeer |
|
|
Chardrius semipalmatus |
Semipalmated plover |
|
|
Chasmodes bosquianus |
Striped
blenny |
|
|
Chasmodes saburrae |
Florida
blenny |
|
|
Chelonia mydas |
Green
sea turtle |
|
|
Chicoreus florifer |
Lace
murex |
|
|
Chondrilla nucula |
Chicken
liver sponge |
|
|
Citharichtys spilopteus |
Bay
whiff |
|
|
Clavelina oblonga |
Oblong
tunicate |
|
|
Clavelina picta |
Painted
tunicate |
|
|
Coccyzus minor |
Mangrove
cuckoo |
|
|
Columba leucocephala |
White-crowed pigeon |
|
|
Corophium sp. |
amphipod |
|
|
Costoanachis avara |
Greedy
dovesnail |
|
|
Crassostrea virginica |
Eastern
oyster |
|
|
Crepidula convexa |
Convex
slippersnail |
|
|
Crepidula plana |
Eastern
white slippersnail |
|
|
Crocodylus acutus |
American
crocodile |
|
|
Cymatium pileare |
Hairy
triton |
|
|
Cynoscion nebulosus |
Spotted
seatrout |
|
|
Cynoscion regalis |
Weakfish |
|
|
Cyprinodon variegatus |
sheepshead minnow |
|
|
Cypselurus heterurus |
Atlantic
flyingfish |
|
|
Dasyatis sabina |
Atlantic
stingray |
|
|
Dendroica petechia gundlachi |
Cuban
yellow warbler |
|
|
Dendroica discolor paludicola |
Florida
prairie warbler |
|
|
Diapterus auratus |
Irish
pompano |
|
|
Didemnum conchyliatum |
White
spongy tunicate |
|
|
Diodora cayensis |
Keyhole
limpet |
|
|
Diopatra spp. |
Plumed
worm, |
|
|
Diplodus argenteus |
Silver
porgy |
|
|
Diplodus holbrooki |
Spottail
pinfish |
|
|
Donax
variablilis |
Variable
coquina |
|
|
Dormitator maculatus |
Fat
sleeper |
|
|
Drymarchon corais couperi |
Eastern
indigo snake |
|
|
Ectenascidea turbiniata |
Mangrove
tunicate |
|
|
Egretta caerula |
Little
blue heron |
|
|
Egretta rufescens |
Reddish
egret |
|
|
Egretta thula |
Snowy
egret |
|
|
Egretta tricolor |
Tricolored heron |
|
|
Eleotris pisonis |
Spinycheek sleeper |
|
|
Elops saurus |
Ladyfish |
|
|
Epinephelus itajara |
Goliath
grouper, jewfish |
|
|
Epinephelus morio |
Red
grouper |
|
|
Eretmochelys imbricata |
Hawksbill sea turtle |
|
|
Erotelis smaragdus |
Emerald
sleeper |
|
|
Eucinostomus argenteus |
Spotfin
mojarra |
|
|
Eucinostomus gula |
Silver
jenny |
|
|
Eucinostomus harengulus |
Tidewater mojarra |
|
|
Eucinostomus melanopterus |
Flagfin
mojarra |
|
|
Eudocimus albus |
White
ibis |
|
|
Eugerres plumieri |
striped
mojarra, goatfish |
|
|
Eurypanopeus depressus |
Depressed mud crab |
|
|
Eurytium limnosum |
Broadback mud crab |
|
|
Evorthodus lyricus |
Lyre
goby |
|
|
Falco
peregrinus |
Peregrine falcon |
|
|
Fasciolaria lilium hunteria |
Banded
tulip |
|
|
Felis
rufus |
Bobcat |
|
|
Floridichthys carpio |
Goldspotted killifish |
|
|
Fundulus cingulatus |
Banded
topminnow |
|
|
Fundulus confluentus |
Marsh
killifish |
|
|
Fundulus grandis |
gulf
killifish |
|
|
Fundulus seminolis |
seminole
killifish |
|
|
Gambusia affinis |
Mosquitofish |
|
|
Gambusia holbrooki |
Eastern
mosquitofish |
|
|
Gambusia rhizophorae |
Mangrove
gambusia |
|
|
Gerres cinereus |
Yellowfin mojarra |
|
|
Geukensia demisa |
Ribbed
mussel |
|
|
Gobiesox strumosus |
Skilletfish |
|
|
Gobioides broussoneti |
Violet
goby |
|
|
Gobionellus boleosoma |
Darter
goby |
|
|
Gobionellus oceanicus |
Highfin
goby, sharptail goby, slim goby |
|
|
Gobionellus smaragdus |
Emerald
goby |
|
|
Gobiosoma bosc |
Naked
goby |
|
|
Gobiosoma macrodon |
Tiger
goby |
|
|
Gobiosoma robustum |
code
goby |
|
|
Goniopsis cruentata |
Spotted
mangrove crab, tree crab |
|
|
Grandidierella bonnieroides |
(Amphipod) |
|
|
Haemulon chrysargyreum |
Smallmouth grunt |
|
|
Haemulon parra |
Sailor’s
choice |
|
|
Haemulon plumieri |
White
grunt |
|
|
Haemulon sciurus |
Bluestriped grunt |
|
|
Haliaeetus leucocephalus |
Bald
eagle |
|
|
Haminoea antillarum |
Antilles
glassy-bubble |
|
|
Harengula jaquana |
Scaled
sardine |
|
|
Hemiramphus balao |
Balao |
|
|
Henrya morrisoni |
(none) |
|
|
Hippocampus erectus |
Lined
seahorse |
|
|
Hippocampus zosterae |
Dwarf
seahorse |
|
|
Hippolyte spp. |
Broken-back shrimp |
|
|
Hydroides spp. |
Feather
duster worms |
|
|
Hypoatherina harringtonensis |
Reef
silverside |
|
|
Ircinia strobilina |
Stinking
pillow sponge |
|
|
Ishadium recurvum |
Hooked
mussel |
|
|
Isognomon alatus |
Flat
tree oyster |
|
|
Isognomon bicolor |
Bicolor
purse oyster |
|
|
Labidesthes sicculus |
Brook
silverside |
|
|
Lagodon rhomboides |
Pinfish,
sailor’s choice |
|
|
Lasiurus spp. |
(bats) |
|
|
Leander tenuicornis |
Brown
glass shrimp |
|
|
Leiostomus xanthurus |
Spot |
|
|
Lepidochelys kempi |
Atlantic
ridley sea turtle |
|
|
Lepisosteus osseus |
Longnose
gar |
|
|
Libinia dubia |
Doubtful
spider crab |
|
|
Ligia
exotica |
Sea
roach |
|
|
Limnodromus griseus |
Short
billed dowitcher |
|
|
Limulus polyphemus |
Horseshoe crab |
|
|
Littorina angulifera |
Mangrove
periwinkle |
|
|
Littorina irrorata |
Marsh
periwinkle |
|
|
Lobotes surinamensis |
Tripletail |
|
|
Lolliguncula brevis |
Atlantic
brief squid |
|
|
Lontra canadensis |
River
otter |
|
|
Lophogobius cyprinoides |
Crested
goby |
|
|
Lucania parva |
Rainwater killifish |
|
|
Lupinoblennius nicholsi |
Highfin
blenny |
|
|
Lutjanus analis |
Mutton
snapper |
|
|
Lutjanus apodus |
Schoolmaster |
|
|
Lutjanus griseus |
Gray
snapper, mangrove snapper |
|
|
Lutjanus jocu |
Dog
snapper |
|
|
Lutjanus synagris |
Lane
snapper |
|
|
Lynx
rufus |
Bobcat |
|
|
Lyonsia floridana |
Florida
lyonsia |
|
|
Macrobrachium acanthurus |
Caribbean crayfish |
|
|
Malaclemys terrapin rhizophorarum |
Mangrove
diamondback terrapin |
|
|
Malaclemys terrapin tequesta |
Diamondback terrapin |
|
|
Trichechus manatus |
West
Indian manatee |
|
|
Martesia striata |
Striate
paddock, wood boring martesia |
|
|
Megaceryle alcyon |
Belted
kingfisher |
|
|
Megalops atlanticus |
Tarpon |
|
|
Melamphus coffeus |
Coffee
bean snail |
|
|
Melampus bidentatus |
Easten
melampus |
|
|
Melongena corona |
Crown
conch |
|
|
Membras martinica |
Rough
silverside |
|
|
Menidia beryllina |
Inland
silverside; tidewater silverside |
|
|
Menidia peninsulae |
Penninsula silverside |
|
|
Menippe mercenaria |
Florida
stone crab |
|
|
Menippe nodifrons |
Cuban
stone crab |
|
|
Menticirrhus americanus |
Southern
kingfish |
|
|
Mephitis mephitis |
Spotted
skunk |
|
|
Mercenaria mercenaria |
Hard
clam, quahog |
|
|
Mergus cucullatus |
Hooded
merganser |
|
|
Mergus serrator |
Red-breasted merganser |
|
|
Microgobius gulosus |
Clown
goby |
|
|
Micropogonias undulatus |
Croaker |
|
|
Mogula occidentalis |
Sandy
sea squirt, western sea squirt |
|
|
Mola
mola |
Ocean
sunfish |
|
|
Monacanthus hispidus |
Planehead filefish |
|
|
Mugil cephalus |
Striped
mullet |
|
|
Mugil
curema |
White
mullet |
|
|
Mycteria americana |
Wood
stork |
|
|
Mycteroperca microlpis |
Gag
grouper, grey grouper |
|
|
Myiarchus crinitus crinitus |
Southern
crested flycatcher |
|
|
Myrophis punctatus |
Speckled
worm eel |
|
|
Mytilopsis leucophaeta |
Dark
falsemussel |
|
|
Nassarius vibex |
Bruised
nassa |
|
|
Neotoma floridana |
Eastern
wood rat |
|
|
Nereis succinea |
Polychaete worm |
|
|
Neritina clenchi |
Clench’s
nerite |
|
|
Neritina virginea |
Virgin
nerite |
|
|
Nerodia clarkii |
Salt
marsh snake |
|
|
Nerodia fasciata compressicauda |
Mangrove
water snake |
|
|
Noetia ponderosa |
Ponderous ark |
|
|
Odocoileus virginianes |
Whitetail deer |
|
|
Odostomia engonia |
(none) |
|
|
Ogilbia cayorum |
Key
brotula |
|
|
Oligoplites saurus |
Leatherjacket |
|
|
Onuphis spp. |
Parchment tube worm, Onuphis worm |
|
|
Ophichthus gomesi |
Shrimp
eel |
|
|
Opisthonema oglinum |
Atlantic
thread herring |
|
|
Opsanus beta |
Gulf
toadfish |
|
|
Orchestia spp. |
(Amphipod) |
|
|
Orthropristis chrysoptera |
Pigfish |
|
|
Oxyura jamaicensis |
Ruddy
duck |
|
|
Pachygrapsus gracilis |
Wharf
crab |
|
|
Pachygrapsus transversus |
Common
shore crab, mottled shore crab |
|
|
Palaemontes spp. |
Grass
shrimp |
|
|
Pandion haliaetus |
Osprey |
|
|
Panopeus herbstii |
Common
mud crab |
|
|
Panulirus argus |
Spiny
lobster |
|
|
Parablennius marmoreus |
Seaweed
blenny |
|
|
Paraclinus fasciatus |
Banded
blenny |
|
|
Parastarte triquetra |
Brown
gemclam |
|
|
Pelecanus erythrorhynchos |
White
pelican |
|
|
Pelicanus occidentalis |
Brown
pelican |
|
|
Penaeus aztecus |
Brown
shrimp |
|
|
Penaeus duorarum |
Pink
shrimp |
|
|
Penaeus setiferus |
White
shrimp |
|
|
Perophora viridis |
Green
colonial tunicate |
|
|
Petaloconchus varians |
Variable
wormsnail |
|
|
Phalacocorax auritus |
Double-crested cormorant |
|
|
Phallusia nigra |
Black
tunicate |
|
|
Phrynelox scaber |
Splitlure frogfish |
|
|
Pisania pusio |
Miniature trumpet triton, Pisa snail |
|
|
Plagusia depressa |
Spray
crab |
|
|
Planobella scalare |
Mesa
ram’s horn |
|
|
Planorbella duryi |
Seminole
ram’s horn |
|
|
Plegadis falcinellus |
Glossy
ibis |
|
|
Pluvialis squatarola |
Black
billed plover |
|
|
Podilymbus podiceps |
Pied-billed grebe |
|
|
Poecilia latipinna |
Sailfin
molly |
|
|
Pogonias cromis |
Black
drum |
|
|
Polyclinum constellatum |
Starred
gelatinous tunicate |
|
|
Polygyra cereolus |
Southern
flatcoil |
|
|
Polygyra spp. |
flatcoils |
|
|
Prionotus tribulus |
Bighead
searobin |
|
|
Procambarus alleni |
Crayfish |
|
|
Procyon lotor |
Raccoon |
|
|
Rallus longirostris |
Clapper
rail |
|
|
Rithropanopeus harrisi |
Harris’
mud crab |
|
|
Rivulus marmoratus |
Mangrove
rivulus |
|
|
Sagitta spp. |
Arrow
worm |
|
|
Sardinella aurita |
Spanish
sardine |
|
|
Sayella crosseana |
(none) |
|
|
Sciaenops ocellatus |
Red
drum, redfish |
|
|
Scorpaena brasiliensis |
Barbfish |
|
|
Selene vomer |
Lookdown |
|
|
Sesarma cinereum |
Gray
marsh crab |
|
|
Sesarma curacaoense |
Curacao
marsh crab |
|
|
Sesarma ricordi |
Marbled
marsh crab |
|
|
Sigmodon hispidus littoralis |
Hipsid
cotton rat |
|
|
Sphaeroma sp. |
Wood-boring crustaceans |
|
|
Sphenia antillensis |
Antillean sphenia |
|
|
Sphoeroides nephelus |
Southern
puffer |
|
|
Sphoeroides spengleri |
Bandtail
puffer |
|
|
Sphoeroides testudineus |
Checkered puffer |
|
|
Sphyraena barracuda |
Great
barracuda |
|
|
Sphyraena borealis |
Northern
sennett |
|
|
Spindalis zena |
Stripe-headed tanager |
|
|
Spirorbis sp. |
|
|
|
Stellatoma stellata |
(none) |
|
|
Stenonereis martini |
Polychaete worm |
|
|
Strongylura notata |
Redfin
needlefish |
|
|
Strongylura timucu |
Timucu |
|
|
Styela plicata |
Pleated
sea squirt |
introduced |
|
Sylvilagus floridanus |
Eastern
cottontail |
|
|
Sylvilagus palustris paludicola |
Marsh
rabbit |
|
|
Synalpheus fritzmuelleri |
Speckled
snapping shrimp |
|
|
Syngnathus louisianae |
Chain
pipefish |
|
|
Syngnathus scovelli |
Gulf
pipefish |
|
|
Synodus foetens |
Inshore
lizardfish |
|
|
Tagelus plebeius |
Stout
tagelus |
|
|
Taphromysis bowmani |
(none) |
|
|
Tedania ignis |
Fire
sponge |
|
|
Tellina tampaenis |
Tampa
tellin |
|
|
Thais
spp. |
Rock
shells |
|
|
Tilapia melanotheron |
Blackchin tilapia |
|
|
Trachinotus falcatus |
Permit |
|
|
Trichechus manatus |
Florida
manatee |
|
|
Trichiurus lepturus |
Atlantic
cutlassfish |
|
|
Trididemnum savignii |
Savigni’s encrusting tunicate |
|
|
Trinectes maculatus |
Hogchoker |
|
|
Tringa flavipes |
Lesser
yellowlegs |
|
|
Tringa melanoleuca |
Greater
yellowlegs |
|
|
Truncatella pulchella |
Beautiful truncatella |
|
|
Tursiops truncatus |
Bottlenosed dolphin |
|
|
Turritella spp. |
Turretsnails |
|
|
Tylosurus acus |
Agujon |
|
|
Tylosurus crocodilus |
Houndfish |
|
|
Tyrannus caudifasciatus |
Loggerhead kingbird |
|
|
Tyrannus dominicensis |
Gray
kingbird |
|
|
Uca
pugilator |
Sand
fiddler crab |
|
|
Uca
rapax |
Caribbean fiddler crab |
|
|
Uca
speciosa |
Ive’s
fiddler crab |
|
|
Uca
thayeri |
Thayer’s
fiddler crab |
|
|
Urocyon cinereoargenteus |
Gray
fox |
|
|
Urosalpinx cinerea |
Atlantic
oyster drill |
|
|
Ursus
americanus |
Black
bear |
|
|
Vallentinia gabriellae |
Hitch-hiking jellyfish |
|
|
Vireo
altiloquus |
Black
whiskered vireo |
|
|
Vitrinella floridana |
Florida
vitrinella |
|
FURTHER READING:
Atkinson, M.R., G.P. Findlay, A.B. Hope, M.G. Pitman, H.D.W. Sadler, and
H.R. West. 1967. Salt regulation in the mangroves
Rhizophora mangle
Lam. and Aerialitis annulata R. Australian
Journal of Biological Science.
20:589-599.
Brockmeyer, R.E., J.R. Rey, R.W. Virnstein, R.G. Gilmore, Jr., and L. Earnest.
1997. Rehabilitation of impounded estuarine wetlands
by hydrologic
reconnection to the Indian River Lagoon, Florida.
Journal of Wetlands
Ecology and Management. 4:93-109.
Carlson, P.R. and L.A. Yarbro. 1987. Physical and biological control of
mangrove pore water chemistry. In: The Ecology and
Management of
Wetlands. D.D. Hook et al., eds. Pp. 112-132.
Croom Helm, London.
Carlton, J.M. 1974. Land-building and stabilization by mangroves.
Environmental Conservation, 1:285-294.
Carlton, J.M. 1975. A guide to common salt marsh and mangrove vegetation.
Florida Marine Resources Publications, No. 6.
Carlton, 1977. A survey of selected coastal vegetation communities of Florida.
Florida Marine Research Publications, No. 30.
Cintron, G., A.E. Lugo, D.J. Pool, and G. Morris. 1978. Mangroves of arid
environments in Puerto Rico and adjacent islands.
Biotropica, 10:110-121.
Feller, I. C., Ed. 1996. Mangrove Ecology Workshop Manual. A Field Manual
for the Mangrove Education and Training Programme for
Belize. Marine
Research Center, University College of Belize, Calabash
Cay, Turneffe
Islands. Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC.
Gilmore, R.G. Jr., D.W. Cooke, and C.J. Donahue. 1982. A comparison of the
fish populations and habitat in open and closed salt
marsh impoundments in
east central Florida. Northeast Gulf Science,
5:25-37.
Gilmore, R.G. Jr. and S.C. Snedaker. 1993. Chapter 5: Mangrove Forests. In:
W.H. Martin, S.G. Boyce and A.C. Echternacht, eds.
Biodiversity of the
Southeastern United States: Lowland Terrestrial
Communities. John Wiley
and Sons, Inc. Publishers. New York, NY. 502 pps.
Harrington, R.W. and E.S. Harrington. 1961. Food selection among fishes
invading a high subtropical salt marsh; from onset of
flooding through the
progress of a mosquito brood. Ecology, 42:646-666.
Heald,
E.J. 1969. The production of organic detritus in a south Florida estuary.
Ph.D. Thesis, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL.
Heald,
E.J. and W.E. Odum. 1970. The contribution of mangrove swamps to
Florida fisheries. Proceedings Gulf and Caribbean
Fisheries Institute, 22:130-
135.
Heald,
E.J., M.A. Roessler, and G.L. Beardsley. 1979. Litter production in a
southwest Florida black mangrove community.
Proceedings of the Florida
Anti-Mosquito Association 50th Meeting. Pp.
24-33.
Hull,
J.B. and W.E. Dove. 1939. Experimental diking for control of sand fly and
mosquito breeding in Florida saltwater marshes.
Journal of Economic
Entomology, 32:309-312.
Lahmann, E. 1988. Effects of different hydrologic regimes on the productivity
of
Rhizophora mangle L. A case study of mosquito control
impoundments in
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