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S. terebinthifolius invading natural wetland areas at Cape Canaveral, FL. Photo courtesy UF/IFAS Center for Aquatic and Invasive Plants. Photographer Vic Ramey.

Species Name: 
Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi

Common Name(s):
Brazilian Pepper, Florida Holly, Christmas Berry, Pepper Tree

Species Description:
Brazilian pepper, Schinus terebinthifolius, is a highly invasive non-native species that is widespread throughout Florida. It grows as an evergreen shrub or a small- to medium-sized tree with a short trunk or trunks typically giving rise to a dense tangle of numerous intertwining branches (Hall et al. 2006).

Leaves are compound and alternately arising off of branches, and comprised of typically 4-6 paired lateral leaflets and a terminal leaflet all arising from a narrow leaf axis. The leaflets are oblong-elliptical, 2.5-5 cm long, dark green above and paler below with readily apparent lateral veins arising from a central leaflet midrib. Leaflet margins may be somewhat toothed. The leaves are highly aromatic when crushed, giving off a peppery or turpentine-like smell (Ferriter 1997, Langeland and Burks 1998, Hall et al. 2006).

Small (2 mm long) white, flowers with 5 petals occur in short-branched clusters at the leaf axils of stems produced in the current season. The fruit grow as bunches of 5-6 mm diameter bright-red, spherical and berry-like drupes that each contain a single pit and seed. The highly visible fruit gives S. terebinthifolius the alternate common names Florida holly and Christmas Berry (Ferriter 1997, Langeland and Burks 1998).

Potentially Misidentified Species:
The casual observer may mistake shoreline S. terebinthifolius stands for stands of the red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle, due to superficially similar physical appearance. Closer examination allows the species to be readily distinguished.

S. terebinthifolius also bears some resemblance to some trees in the mastic family, including the false mastic (Sideroxylon foetidissimum) with which it co-occurs in the IRL watershed. The fruits of the mastic are larger than those of Brazilian pepper, are yellow-orange in color, and edible with a gummy pulp.

II.  HABITAT AND DISTRIBUTION 

Regional Occurrence:
The native South American range of S. terebinthifolius includes Brazil, Argentina, and Paraguay (Langeland and Burks 1998). It has elsewhere, often intentionally for purposes of cultivation. More than 20 years ago Brazilian pepper had already been reported as successfully naturalized in over 20 countries occupying the sub-tropical belts (15-30°) of both the northern and southern hemisphere (Ewel et al. 1982).

Within the U.S., Brazilian pepper is a highly invasive species in Florida and Hawaii. It is still grown as an ornamental plant in Texas, Louisiana, Arizona, and California. The Florida distribution of S. terebinthifolius now includes most of the peninsula, extending north to at least Levy County on the Gulf coast and all the way to the Florida-Georgia border on the Atlantic coast.

Within its introduced range, S. terebinthifolius readily invades a wide variety of natural, disturbed, and urbanized habitats in mesic to wet lowland environments, including coastal shorelines, riparian zones, wetlands, forested areas, scrub, range/grasslands, agricultural lands, and urban spaces (Woodall 1982, Laroche 1994, Langeland and Burks 1998).

IRL Distribution:
S. terebinthifolius is well-established within all six IRL watershed counties.

III. LIFE HISTORY AND POPULATION BIOLOGY

Age, Size, Lifespan:
S. terebinthifolius is often encountered as a shrub or small tree growing to a height of 3-7 m. It can grow to be substantially taller, to as much as 13 m (Ferriter 1997, Langeland and Burks 1998). Some individuals can live as long as 35 years (Hall et al. 2006).

Abundance:
By the mid-1990s, S. terebinthifolius was estimated to occupy more than 280,000 ha in central and south Florida (Wunderlin et al. 1995, Ferriter 1997).

Reproduction:
Plants become reproductive about three years after germination (Hall et al. 2006). Although Ewel et al. (1982) note a small number of Brazilian pepper trees in a population may produce some monoecious or 'complete' flowers (both sexes present), S. terebinthifolius is primarily a dioecious species with male and female flowers occurring on separate male and female trees (Ferriter 1997).

Male flowers only last 1 day, while female flowers can last up to 6 days (Hall et al. 2006).The plant depends on diurnal insect pollinators including a number of true flies, bees and wasps, and butterflies. The syrphid fly Palpada vinetorum may be particularly important. Outcrossing is the general rule for the species (Ferriter 1997).

The main flowering season occurs from September to October or November, although in Florida some plants can usually be seen in flower an any time of year. Large numbers of small flowers are produced. This is followed by a winter period of fruit production from November through February during which female trees produce a tremendous amount of fruit that may persist ripe for as much as 8 months. A small number of trees (less than 10%) also flower from March to May (Ewel et al. 1982, Ferriter 1997, Langland and Burks 1998, Hall et al. 2006).

Embryology:
Ripe fruits are consumed by birds and mammals and this is an important dispersal route for the seeds. Germination success is enhanced if seeds are exposed to dilute acid in the lab, and seed passage through the acidic environment of an animal's digestive tract may have a similar positive effect (Hall et al. 2006). Water and gravity are secondary dispersal agents (Ewel et al. 1982, Ferriter 1997). Seedling survival rate is high and seedlings rapidly take advantage of canopy breaks to gain a foothold in new area (Hall et al. 2006).

IV.  PHYSICAL TOLERANCES

Temperature:
Brazilian pepper has thrived in many subtropical areas into which it has been introduced, but cold intolerance precludes expansion of the species into more temperate regions (Ferriter 1997). Cold sensitivity also restricts the distribution of S. terebinthifolius to somewhat protected sites in central Florida (Hall et al. 2006).

Salinity:
S. terebinthifolius is only moderately halotolerant. Seeds fail to germinate and tansplanted seedlings are killed off at salinities exceeding 5 ppt (Mytinger and Williamson 1987). While salinity intolerance tends to exclude Brazilian pepper from the leading (seaward) edge of intact mangrove stands along unaltered estuarine shorelines, the species readily invades mangrove stands lining low-salinity ditches, impoundments and other hydrologically altered habitats (Ferriter 1997).